Verbs

There are a total of twelve verbs in sodemadu. These come in two categories: the verbs of motion, which encode motion along various types of paths, and the verbs of stance, which might arguably be a single verb with multiple suppletive forms which encode the shape or stance of the subject. There are eight basic verbs of motion and four verbs of stance.

All verbs inflect for aspect (imperfect, perfect, iterative) and evidentiality (visual, non-visual, inferred, reported). The verbs of motion deal with a journey. The subject of the verb is the person or thing in motion and on the journey. When expressed, the source can be the point of origin or the impetus for the journey. Likewise, when expressed, the destination is the end-point or goal of the journey. The verbs of stance deal with more static expressions regarding the subject.

The aspectual distinctions in the verbs of motion deal with the state of the journey: imperfective is for an ongoing journey, perfective for a finished journey, and iterative for multiple journeys of the same or similar type. In the verbs of stance they are closer to a more typical tense system: non-past for imperfective, and past for perfective.

The evidential distinctions form a four-way system. These are visual, non-visual/sensory, inferred, and reported. The visual evidential is used for things that the speaker has directly witnessed or experienced. It can also be used for generally known and observable facts, i.e. the things that are certain. The visual evidential, however, is zero-marked. Verbs in subclauses need not take any evidentials, so they are also zero-marked for evidentiality. The non-visual/sensory evidential is used for things the speaker has heard, smelled, tasted, and felt inside, i.e. emotions, thoughts, and physical states like hunger and thirst, heat and cold, and illnesses. It is also used for negative visual evidence. Furthermore, it can be used where the visual evidential would normally be used in order to convey non-volitional actions by the speaker. The inferred is used for things based on sensory evidence, including the sense of touch. It is also used to comment on other people’s mental and physical states. Reported is used for anything else. Specifically, it is for things the speaker knows from hearing it from someone else, learning it from a teacher or a book, or reading it somewhere.

Verbs of Motion

The eight verbs of motion are tɨŋi, aŋi, kiɬi, duso, ono, pɛsi, evi, and ɛmɛmɛ.

Tɨŋi

Tɨŋi is the most basic, being simply "→" and allowing for optional source and a required destination. The optional source, if sessile, is the point of origin or the impetus of the journey. If motile, it is the agent who is sending the subject on the journey.

Tɨŋi can take prefixes to change the valency. E-tɨŋi removes the source, thus putting more emphasis on the destination. It therefore allows for a motile destination, who would be the 'leader' of the subject, the one the subject is following. With mɛh-tɨŋi, the subject is leading the source, and the destination is unimportant and therefore removed. Dan-tɨŋi removes both source and destination, and carries the idea of the subject as going along about its business. Finally, the negative form is vu-tɨŋi. This can negate all the forms of tɨŋi, though using the adverb voya with any form of tɨŋi is always an option.

tɨŋi (S) A → D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	tɨŋi	otni	tɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensory	tɨmbi	ombɛ	tɨmbena
Inferred	tɨlli	otɨllɛ	tɨllena
Reported	tɨŋe	oŋŋe	tɨŋena

etɨŋi A → D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	etɨŋi	eyotni	etɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensory	etɨmbi	eyombɛ	etɨmbena
Inferred	etɨlli	oyetɨllɛ	etɨllena
Reported	etɨŋe	eyoŋŋe	etɨŋena

mɛttɨŋi (S) A →

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	mɛttɨŋi	mɛhotni	mɛttɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensory	mɛttɨmbi	mɛhombɛ	mɛttɨmbena
Inferred	mɛttɨlli	omɛttɨllɛ	mɛttɨllena
Reported	mɛttɨŋe	mɛhoŋŋe	mɛttɨŋena

dantɨŋi A →

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	dantɨŋi	danotni	dantɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensory	dantɨmbi	danombɛ	dantɨmbena
Inferred	dantɨlli	odantɨllɛ	dantɨllena
Reported	dantɨŋe	danoŋŋe	dantɨŋena

vutɨŋi (S) A !→ (D)

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Ø	vutɨŋi	votni	vutɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensory	vutɨmbi	vombɛ	vutɨmbena
Inferred	vutɨlli	ovotɨllɛ	vutɨllena
Reported	vutɨŋe	voŋŋe	vutɨŋena

Aŋi

Aŋi is a variation on tɨŋi where the end-point or goal of the journey is vast or amorphous, and therefore the journey continues within the destination. aŋi is denoted as "→◯" and can be thought of as "go about in". Note that tɨŋi and aŋi have the same forms in the perfect.

Technically, aŋi can take all the prefixes that tɨŋi can, but it doesn't necessarily make logical sense to do so. Aside from the negative vu-aŋi, the most often seen prefixed form is e-aŋi, which carries with it a stronger idea of "going about in" or of "going through" a destination.

aŋi (S) A →◯ D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	aŋi	otni	anna
Non-Visual/Sensory	ambi	ombɛ	ambena
Inferred	alli	otɨllɛ	allena
Reported	aŋe	oŋŋe	aŋena

eyaŋi A →◯ D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	eyaŋi	eyotni	eyanna
Non-Visual/Sensory	eyambi	eyombɛ	eyambena
Inferred	eyalli	oŋetɨllɛ	eyallena
Reported	eyaŋe	eyoŋŋe	eyaŋena

vaŋi (S) A !→◯ D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Ø	vaŋi	votni	vanna
Non-Visual/Sensory	vambi	vombɛ	vambena
Inferred	valli	ovotɨllɛ	vallena
Reported	vaŋe	voŋŋe	vaŋena

Kiɬi

With kiɬi, the destination is bypassed or moved beyond. This is denoted as "→̥". The negative form is vu-kiɬi.

kiɬi (S) A →̥ D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	kiɬi	kɨttɛ	kɨlna
Non-Visual/Sensory	kɨbli	okɨptɛ	kɨblena
Inferred	kɨlli	okɨllɛ	kɨllena
Reported	kiɬe	okɨttɛ	kiɬena

vukiɬi (S) A !→̥ D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Ø	vukiɬi	vukɨttɛ	vukɨlna
Non-Visual/Sensory	vukɨbli	ovokɨptɛ	vukɨblena
Inferred	vukɨlli	ovokɨllɛ	vukɨllena
Reported	vukiɬe	ovokɨttɛ	vukiɬena

Duso

Duso has a basic meaning of to move back and forth between a source and a destination, denoted as "←→". This is the usual metaphor for speech and other two-way interactions. Essentially, the source and destination interact with each other using the subject. Or, the subject goes back and forth between a source and destination. In speech, the source and destination are the participants, and the subject is the speech. With e-duso, the subject is generally a person and the destination a location the person returns to on a cyclical basis. eduso is not normally used for describing speech. mɛh-duso removes the destination, so the source is saying something (the subject), and the audience is assumed or otherwise unimportant. With dan-duso, the subject is something said by someone unexpressed. Finally, the negative is vu-duso.

duso S A ←→ D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	duso	dustɛ	dusna
Non-Visual/Sensory	duspi	duspɛtɛ	duspena
Inferred	dusli	duslɛtɛ	duslena
Reported	dusu	odustɛ	dusena

eduso A ←→ D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	eduso	edustɛ	edusna
Non-Visual/Sensory	eduspi	eduspɛtɛ	eduspena
Inferred	edusli	eduslɛtɛ	eduslena
Reported	edusu	oŋedustɛ	edusena

mɛdduso S A ←→

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	mɛdduso	mɛddustɛ	mɛddusna
Non-Visual/Sensory	mɛdduspi	mɛdduspɛtɛ	mɛdduspena
Inferred	mɛddusli	mɛdduslɛtɛ	mɛdduslena
Reported	mɛddusu	omɛddustɛ	mɛddusena

danduso A ←→

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	danduso	dandustɛ	dandusna
Non-Visual/Sensory	danduspi	danduspɛtɛ	danduspena
Inferred	dandusli	danduslɛtɛ	danduslena
Reported	dandusu	odandustɛ	dandusena

vuduso (S) A !←→ (D)

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Ø	vuduso	vudustɛ	vudusna
Non-Visual/Sensory	vuduspi	vuduspɛtɛ	vuduspena
Inferred	vudusli	vuduslɛtɛ	vuduslena
Reported	vudusu	ovodustɛ	vudusena

Ono

With ono ("←"), the arrow of motion is reversed, so the destination is coming to the subject. Ono is the default way to express ingestion, sensing, feeling, and thinking. When used for sensing, the subject is often a body part: "eye" for "seeing", "ear" for "hearing", "mouth" for taste and smell, "skin" for feeling temperature, and so on. The source, then, can be the owner of the body part. E-ono is used when something is sensed directly, with the subject usually being the person sensing the destination. mɛh-ono involves a subject moving towards a source. Dan-ono involves the subject experiencing something at a remove. The most common usage involves a peripheral phrase with mo, denoting that the subject knows something about the object of the preposition mo. The negative form of this verb is vu-ono or vono.

ono S A ← D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	ono	tono	onna
Non-Visual/Sensory	ombi	ombɛtɛ	ombena
Inferred	onli	onlɛtɛ	onlena
Reported	onu	otone	onena

eyono A ← D

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	eyono	etono	eyonna
Non-Visual/Sensory	eyombi	eyombɛtɛ	eyombena
Inferred	eyonli	eyonlɛtɛ	eyonlena
Reported	eyonu	oŋetone	eyonena

mɛhono S A ←

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	mɛhono	mɛttono	mɛhonna
Non-Visual/Sensory	mɛhombi	mɛhombɛtɛ	mɛhombena
Inferred	mɛhonli	mɛhonlɛtɛ	mɛhonlena
Reported	mɛhonu	omɛttone	mɛhonena

danono A ←

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	danono	dantono	danonna
Non-Visual/Sensory	danombi	danombɛtɛ	danombena
Inferred	danonli	danonlɛtɛ	danonlena
Reported	danonu	odantone	danonena

vono (S) A !← (D)

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Ø	vono	votono	vonna
Non-Visual/Sensory	vombi	vombɛtɛ	vombena
Inferred	vonli	vonlɛtɛ	vonlena
Reported	vonu	ovotone	vonena

Pɛsi

Pɛsi ("→→") can be thought of as a special form of tɨŋi with a required source and an unexpressed destination "away". E-pɛsi removes the source, giving the meaning of the subject simply going away or disappearing. The negative form is vu-pɛsi.

pɛsi (S) A →→

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	pɛsi	pɛstɛ	pɛsna
Non-Visual/Sensory	pɛspi	pɛspɛtɛ	pɛspena
Inferred	pɛsli	pɛslɛtɛ	pɛslena
Reported	pɛse	opɛstɛ	pɛsena

epɛsi A →→

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	epɛsi	epɛstɛ	epɛsna
Non-Visual/Sensory	epɛspi	epɛspɛtɛ	epɛspena
Inferred	epɛsli	epɛslɛtɛ	epɛslena
Reported	epɛse	oyepɛstɛ	epɛsena

vupɛsi (S) A !→→

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Ø	vupɛsi	vupɛstɛ	vupɛsna
Non-Visual/Sensory	vupɛspi	vupɛspɛtɛ	vupɛspena
Inferred	vupɛsli	vupɛslɛtɛ	vupɛslena
Reported	vupɛse	ovopɛstɛ	vupɛsena

Evi

Evi involves the subject moving out in all directions or expanding from a source. This is denoted as "↖↗". E-evi, expressed as ŋevi, removes the source. The negative is vu-evi or veve.

evi S A ↖↗

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	evi	tavi	evna
Non-Visual/Sensory	ebi	otabɛ	ebena
Inferred	evli	otavlɛ	evlena
Reported	evo	otave	evena

ŋevi A ↖↗

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	ŋevi	ŋetavi	ŋevna
Non-Visual/Sensory	ŋebi	oŋetabɛ	ŋebena
Inferred	ŋevli	oŋetavlɛ	ŋevlena
Reported	ŋevo	oŋetave	ŋevena

veve (S) A !↖↗

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Ø	veve	votavi	vevna
Non-Visual/Sensory	vebi	ovotabɛ	vebena
Inferred	vevli	ovotavlɛ	vevlena
Reported	vevo	ovotave	vevena

Ɛmɛmɛ

Ɛmɛmɛ involves the subject moving inwards from all directions or collapsing into a source, making it the opposite of evi. This is denoted as "↘↙". E-ɛmɛmɛ, expressed as ŋeme, removes the source. The negative is vu-ɛmɛmɛ or vɛmɛ. ɛmɛmɛ is often used to denote creation or making, where the subject is created by the source.

ɛmɛmɛ S A ↘↙

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	ɛmɛmɛ	omɛtɛ	ɛmena
Non-Visual/Sensory	ɛmɛbi	omɛptɛ	ɛmbena
Inferred	ɛmɛli	omɛttɛ	ɛmlena
Reported	ɛmɛmo	omɛntɛ	ɛmmena

ŋɛmɛ A ↘↙

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	ŋɛmɛ	oŋemɛtɛ	ŋɛmena
Non-Visual/Sensory	ŋɛmɛbi	oŋemɛptɛ	ŋɛmbena
Inferred	ŋɛmɛli	oŋemɛttɛ	ŋɛmlena
Reported	ŋɛmɛmo	oŋemɛntɛ	ŋɛmmena

vɛmɛ (S) A !↘↙

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Ø	vɛmɛ	ovomɛtɛ	vɛmena
Non-Visual/Sensory	vɛmɛbi	ovomɛptɛ	vɛmbena
Inferred	vɛmɛli	ovomɛttɛ	vɛmlena
Reported	vɛmo	ovomɛntɛ	vɛmmena

Verbs of Stance

The verbs of stance are tɛndɛ, sɛdɛ, daɬa, and their negative vuye. These verbs are grouped together because they each essentially function as a copula and verb of existence. Each can take either a motile or sessile subject, whichever is basic to the noun class of the subject. They don't take actual destinations, but sometimes a refining adjective, inflected to match the subject, can be found in the destination slot.

The differences between the three positive verbs of stance have to do with the shape of the subject. Tɛndɛ ("■") takes a subject that can be conceived of as a round, compact, or a point object, like a rock or a person sitting on the ground. Sɛdɛ ("|") takes a subject that can be conceived of as having a vertical orientation, like a tree or a person standing up. Daɬa ("–") takes a subject that can be conceived of as having a horizontal orientation, like a river or a person lying down. Daɬa also takes most abstract subjects.

tɛndɛ (S) A ■

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	tɛndɛ	tɛttɛ	tɛnna
Non-Visual/Sensory	tɛppi	otɛppɛ	tɛppena
Inferred	tɛlli	otɛllɛ	tɛllena
Reported	tɛndo	otɛttɛ	tɛndena

sɛdɛ (S) A |

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	sɛdɛ	sɛttɛ	sɛnna
Non-Visual/Sensory	sɛppi	osɛppɛ	sɛppena
Inferred	sɛlli	osɛllɛ	sɛllena
Reported	sɛdo	osɛttɛ	sɛdena

daɬa (S) A –

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Visual/Ø	daɬa	dattɛ	danna
Non-Visual/Sensory	dappi	odappɛ	dappena
Inferred	dalli	odallɛ	dallena
Reported	daɬo	odattɛ	daɬena

vuye (S) A !

	Imperfect	Perfect	Iterative
Ø	vuye	vuttɛ	vunna
Non-Visual/Sensory	vuppi	ovoppɛ	vuppena
Inferred	vulli	ovollɛ	vullena
Reported	voyo	ovottɛ	vuyena

Uses of the Verbs of Stance

Expressing Existence

A verb of stance can be used with a single argument A to express existence.

A clause can appear as a single argument as well. When this happens, the verb in the clause operating as an argument loses any marking for evidentiality.

Some speakers prefer to have clauses appear only after a verb. In this situation, a dummy subject da or one of the demonstratives is used.

When using a demonstrative as the subject of a verb of stance, the clause can be replaced with a simple noun phrase.

The sentence above can be rewritten with both arguments in the subject slot.

Expressing Identity and Attribution

As noted in the previous section, the verbs of stance can take a complement (either a noun phrase or a clause) in the destination slot.

Provided that both subject and complement are full noun phrases, they can be reversed.

An adjective can also appear in the complement slot, expressing an attribute. Since a bare adjective is not a noun phrase, this relationship is not reversible.

Expressing Possession, Benefaction, and Location

Expressing posession, benefaction, location, and other concepts involve using the verbs of stance as intransitive verbs with peripheral arguments. Peripheral arguments have a preposition+classifier before the noun.

Simple Possession

Whole::Part Relationship

Benefaction

Location

Temporary Identity or Attribute

Composition

Instrument